This study aimed to investigate the effects of ultrasound-induced cell disruption at different ultrasonic powers (P = 200–800 W) on the mass transfer and dissolution behavior of multiple intracellular components in purple sweet potato (PSP). Scanning electron microscopy, fractal dimension analysis and the cell wall disintegration index (Zd) were used to characterize the extent of cell wall disruption. First-order kinetic modeling, the extraction index (Z) and diffusion experiments were then use to further elucidate the dissolution kinetics and mass transfer behavior of the multiple intracellular components of PSP. The results showed that ultrasound treatment increased the contents of carbohydrates, proteins, and total phenolics by approximately three to fourfold compared with conventional water extraction. The first-order kinetic model provided a good fit to the dissolution processes of proteins and total phenolics. The dissolution rate constants of carbohydrates were consistently higher than those of proteins and total phenolics at the same ultrasonic power. Ultrasound-induced disruption of PSP cells predominantly occurred within the first 10 minutes, with the extent of cell wall disintegration increasing significantly with increasing ultrasonic power (Zd ≈ 0.2–0.5). A linear relationship was observed between Zd and ultrasonic power (Zd = 0.0006P + 0.115, R2 = 0.9908). During the diffusion stage, the increases in the extraction content of the multiple components followed the order of total phenolics > carbohydrates > proteins. However, the overall increase was limited, indicating that the extent of cell wall disruption determines the upper limit of mass transfer efficiency. Overall, ultrasound treatment promoted cell wall disruption, thereby significantly enhancing the rapid release of intracellular components in PSP and exhibiting a pronounced power-dependent effect. This study quantitatively elucidates the relationship between ultrasound-induced cell disruption and the dissolution and mass transfer behavior of intracellular components, providing a theoretical basis for the efficient, green extraction and comprehensive utilization of intracellular components in PSP.